The Dance and Music of Ājīvika Makkhali Gosāla
The Dance and Music of Ājīvika Makkhali Gosāla — Paintings and Inscriptions Revealing Them
Professor K. Nedunchezhiyan, who has conducted extensive research on Ājīvika for many years, has written two books: “ஆசீவகம் எனும் தமிழர் அணுவியம்” (Ājīvika as the Atomic Philosophy of the Tamils) and “ஆசீவகமும் ஐயனார் வரலாறும்” (Ājīvika and the History of Aiyanar). This article, titled “எண்ணியமும் ஆசீவகமும்” (Numerical Philosophy and Ājīvika), has been written based on those works.
Ājīvika was formed through the combination of three philosophical traditions:
- The doctrine of fate (Uḻiyal) of Makkhali Gosāla (மற்கலி கோசாலர்),
- The doctrine of denial of karmic action (Viṉai Maṟuppiyal) of Pūraṇa Kāśyapa (பூரண காயபர்),
- The atomic philosophy (Aṇuviyal) of Pakudha Kaccāyana (பக்குடுக்கை நன்கணியார்).
Atomic philosophy refers to the materialist understanding of elements (Bhūtavāda). The term “Kaṇiyan” (கணியன்)refers to an ascetic who was skilled in astronomy and astrology.
The great sage who brought these three ideas together and organised them into a religious-philosophical system was Makkhali Gosāla, the founder of Ājīvika.
Although Makkhali Gosāla was given various names in northern Sanskrit, Jain and Buddhist literature, in Tamil tradition he was known as மற்கலி (Markali).
Makkhali Gosāla was a contemporary of Mahāvīra and the Buddha. Jain texts state that he died sixteen years before Mahāvīra attained parinirvāṇa. According to the Jain text Bhagavati Sūtra, if Mahāvīra attained parinirvāṇa in 484 BCE, then Makkhali Gosāla must have attained parinirvāṇa around 500 BCE.
During the periods of Bimbisāra (543–493 BCE) and his son Ajātaśatru (493–461 BCE), the Buddha, Makkhali Gosāla and Mahāvīra were all living figures.
Based on these calculations, scholar Kaṇiyan Bālan suggests that Makkhali Gosāla may have attained parinirvāṇa around 490 BCE. If he lived for 80 years, like the Buddha, his lifetime may be estimated approximately as 570–490 BCE.
According to the Jain text Bhagavati Sūtra, during his final days Makkhali Gosāla stayed at the house of his female disciple Ālakālā (ஆலகாலா), a woman belonging to the potter community. From there he revealed his Eight Finalities (எட்டு உறுதிப் பொருள்கள்).
These eight final declarations were:
- The Last Drink(இறுதிப் பருகல்)
- The Last Song(இறுதிப் பாடல்)
- The Last Dance(இறுதி ஆடல்)
- The Last Greeting(இறுதி வரவேற்பு)
- The Last Great Storm Cloud(இறுதிப் பெரும்புயல் முகில்)
- The Last Elephant Sprinkling Perfume/Water(இறுதி யானையின் நீரூற்று)
- The Last Battle(இறுதிப் போர்)
- The Twenty-fourth and Final Tīrthaṅkara of the Avasarpiṇī cycle(24ஆவது இறுதித் தீர்த்தங்கரர்)
These eight finalities defined by Makkhali Gosāla were symbolic expressions of a philosophical system.
Paintings containing these final eight symbols — or some of them — are found at சித்தண்ண வாசல், where stone beds associated with Ājīvika ascetics are located.
On the walls of the rock-cut temple at the foot of the hill there are sculptures of three Tīrthaṅkaras. The temple also contains beautiful paintings of:
- a lotus pond,
- dancing women,
- a king and queen.
Among the three figures depicted in the lotus pond are Pūraṇa, who had transcended ordinary birth and death, and Makkhali, while Kaṇi Nandāśiriyar (கணி நந்தாசிரியன்) is depicted separately.
The dancing women, elephants and other figures represent Makkhali Gosāla’s:
- Last Song,
- Last Dance,
- Last Elephant Sprinkling.
The king and queen paintings represent Pāṇḍya king நெடுஞ்செழியன் and his queen.
The paintings of சித்தண்ண வாசல் may belong to approximately the 3rd century BCE. Therefore, according to this interpretation, these paintings are neither from the Pallava period nor exclusively connected with later Jain traditions.
The lotus pond represents the attainment of liberation (Vīṭupeṟu). In Tamil literary tradition, those who attain liberation are described as “மலர்மிசை ஏகினான்” (“one who went upon the flower”). A related expression is “பூவில் உடையார்”(“the one associated with the flower”).
If பூவில் உடையார் மலை is considered a symbolic mountain, then the paintings at சித்தண்ண வாசல் should also be understood in relation to that symbolism.
At the summit of பூவில் உடையார் மலை, worship is still performed for Pūraṇa and Makkhali. Because of the honour given to these two figures, the mountain continues to be known by people as பூவில் உடையார் மலை.
Therefore, according to this interpretation, participation in dance and music, together with related instruments such as flute music, yāḻ (யாழ்) music and drum performances, was a practice particularly associated with Ājīvika ascetics. Such practices were not accepted within some of the other religious traditions of that period.
These were considered identifying features of the Ājīvika tradition.
Other characteristics associated with Ājīvika included:
- astronomy,
- astrology,
- numerical sciences,
- observation of celestial phenomena.
Examples of people associated with these traditions include:
- கணி நந்தாஸிரியர் (Kaṇi Nandāśiriyar),
- கணியன் பூங்குன்றனார் (Kaṇiyan Pūṅkuṉṟanār),
- பக்குடுக்கை நற்கணியனார் (Pakudha Narkaṇiyanār).
Therefore, what do these symbols represent?
- dance performances,
- songs,
- musical instruments,
- female dancers,
- lotus flowers,
- lotus ponds,
- water tanks,
- and Ājīvika Aiyanar shrines located nearby.
They represent the symbolic identity of Ājīvika.
For this reason, inscriptions mentioning singers, dancers, and musicians with their instruments are understood here as reflecting the identity and traditions of the Ājīvika community.
The paintings at சித்தண்ண வாசல் are also compared with the paintings found at சிகிரியா in Eelam.
Inscriptions referring to musicians and singers
- சித்துல்பவுவ – குருநாகல்
IC No. 641
Inscription:
“இதஸ் கித தேரஹ / ஸதி விஸரிய / ஸுமந குதஸ / ஸித குஹ”
Translation:
“The permanent dwelling place (cave) of Sumana Kutta, who was skilled in yāḻ music (யாழிசை) and who, while performing music, would become completely absorbed in it.”
(சித்துல்பவுவ – குருநாகல்)
This inscription is interpreted as referring to a musician devoted to musical performance and spiritual practice.
- சிலாவகந்த
IC No. 673
Inscription:
“கனக ரகிய உபசிக திஸய அகத அனகத ஸகஸ”
Translation:
“The cave belonging to the female devotee Tisa, who continuously performed the same melody and maintained her musical practice.”
This inscription is interpreted as referring to an upāsikā (female devotee) named Tisa who was associated with continuous singing.
- சித்துல்பவுவ
IC No. 614
Inscription:
“ஈஸீர கித தேரஹ ஸதி விஹரிய பத பகினிய திஸ தேரஹ”
Translation:
“The stone bed belonging to the ascetic Tisa, who was skilled in divine singing (Īsīra gita) and who was the foremost teacher among wandering ascetic practitioners.”
Here, the title indicates a respected religious musician and teacher.
- கோணகல
IC No. 670
Inscription:
“சுட புதர கித தேரஹ அதி வஸிக பத திஸஹ (லெணெ)”
Translation:
“The cave (stone bed) belonging to Tisa, the foremost ascetic teacher, skilled in auspicious music (Budara Gita) including:
- flute,
- yāḻ,
- drums,
- ceremonial instruments.”
The term “பத (Pada)” is interpreted as indicating a person who had reached the highest level of mastery or who was an eminent teacher in that particular field.
- வெஹெரகம
IC No. 700
Inscription:
“தெவர கிதஸ ச
தம தேரஸ ச – லெணெ”
Translation:
“The cave of an ascetic skilled in performing divine songs and playing musical instruments accompanied by drums.”
These inscriptions are presented as evidence that music, singing, dance, and performance traditions existed among certain ascetic communities of ancient Eelam.
According to this interpretation, the artistic elements shown in சித்தண்ண வாசல் paintings — such as dancers, lotus ponds, musicians and royal figures — are not merely decorative, but symbolic representations connected with the philosophical and religious worldview of Ājīvika traditions.
Translation by Hari
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