The Origin, Period, and Reasons for the Emergence of Prakrit Inscriptions in Eelam
The Origin, Period, and Reasons for the Emergence of Prakrit Inscriptions in Eelam
To understand the principles of Ājīvika, it is necessary to examine the criticisms and references found in the writings of other contemporary religious traditions. This is because the original Ājīvika texts were completely destroyed, leaving no surviving works through which its doctrines could be directly studied. However, the religious texts that opposed Ājīvika preserved criticisms and descriptions of its teachings. By collecting and analysing these references, it has been possible to reconstruct aspects of Ājīvika philosophy and understand the reasons why other traditions opposed it.
According to the Ājīvika researcher A. L. Basham, Makkali Gosala died in 454 BCE. It is said that Makkali Gosala was descended from the Velir royal lineage of a king named Kalivāhu and was therefore also called Kaliyān. The Tamil calendar system itself has historically been referred to as the Kali era.
Makkali Gosala, together with six Ājīvika sages known as the “wandering ones of the six directions” (Sati Vihari), compiled Ājīvika philosophical teachings into eight categories of texts. These were known as the Aṣṭamā Nimittas (the Eight Great Signs or Principles). The Prakrit term used to refer to these directional wanderers became Tissa. Therefore, names such as Tissa, Gamani Tissa, and Mahatissa found among the Pandyan rulers of Eelam represent, according to this interpretation, followers of the Ājīvika tradition.
With the meaning of following this sacred path, rulers such as Gamani Tissa, Gamani Abhaya, and Gamani Uti, who ruled Eelam before Mauryan Ashoka, incorporated the title Devanapiya into their royal names and engraved inscriptions bearing these titles. The last ruler to retain this title was King Tissa. According to this interpretation, Chandragupta Maurya, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son Ashoka originally followed the Ājīvika tradition but later abandoned it and adopted another religious path.
Furthermore, the correct Prakrit pronunciation of the name Makkali Gosala, the founder of Ājīvika, is said here to be Mahakali Gotama. Since Prakrit inscriptions did not mark pure consonants, the name was written in that manner. The meaning of this name is interpreted as Mahāsātta. Therefore, he is referred to as Bhagavan Gotama Samana Buddha.
An inscription relating to him is also said to exist in Eelam. It is stated that he attained mahāsamādhi at Tiruppidavur in 454 BCE, after following the northern ascetic practice (vadakkiruthal) and entering a burial vessel (thāli pānai). Therefore, his period belongs to the 6th–5th centuries BCE.
An inscription concerning this Mahakali states that Parumaka Abhaya’s son Erakan provided a resting place for:
- Bhagavan Mahakali Gotama Samana Buddha,
- Sāri Putta,
- Puna Theraha,
- Pusa Theraha.
From this, it is interpreted that the six directional wanderers were:
- Kaṇi Nandāsiriyar, identified as Sāri Putta
- Pūraṇar, identified as Mahā Kāśyapa (also referred to as Puna Theraha)
- Ajita Kesakambali (the Sangam poet Nariverūuttalaiyār)
- Pakuda Kaccāyana (Pakkudukkai Nankaṇiyār)
- Nigaṇṭha Natha Putta (Jain Mahavira)
- Sañjaya Belaṭṭha Putta
Together with Mahakali, these formed a group of seven teachers.
Among them, Ajita Kesakambali, known in Tamil tradition as Nariverūuttalaiyār, was a Sangam-period poet who composed several poems.
One of his verses explains the Ājīvika doctrine:
“Milk once removed from the breast does not return;
butter once churned does not return into the buttermilk;
the sound of a broken conch does not return;
life that has left the body does not return;
a fallen flower does not return to the tree.
The dead are not born again — no, never, never.”
Through this poem, he expresses the Ājīvika belief concerning the irreversible nature of existence.
He also composed poems about the Chera king Kōpperuñcēral Irumporai of Karuvur.
A poem from Kuruntokai states:
“Is this, my friend, the illness of love?
Beneath the sweet shade of the punnai tree where birds rest,
with waves breaking upon the shore,
separated from my beloved,
will my many-petalled eyes no longer find sleep?”
(Kuruntokai 5)
Another poem states:
“O people of great wisdom! O people of great wisdom!
Your grey hair resembles the sharp bones of fish,
your old age has passed without benefit.
When the one with the powerful weapon of fate
binds you at the final moment,
will you not feel sorrow?
Even if you cannot perform good deeds,
at least protect yourselves from evil.
That alone pleases everyone
and is the path that leads to righteousness.”
(Purananuru 195)
Another poem describes the landscape of Māntai:
“When the cool sea waves move,
white cranes gather in groups and feed upon the small fish.
Māntai is truly a good town,
yet staying alone there becomes a place of loneliness.”
(Kuruntokai 166)
A further poem states:
“Between black stones like buffaloes,
elephants roam through the forests,
O lord of the wilderness,
since you possess greatness, I shall speak one word:
do not abandon compassion and love…”
(Purananuru 5)
Because Nariverūuttalaiyār composed these works, this interpretation concludes that Kōpperuñcēral Irumporai of Karuvur also lived during the period between the 6th and 5th centuries BCE.
These references are presented as evidence that the Tamil language had already achieved a high level of literary and grammatical development during this early period.
Translation by Hari
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