Ancient Tamilakam: Historical Confusion and Its Causes

Ancient Tamilakam: Historical Confusion and Its Causes

The territories referred to as Ancient Tamilakam are identified in the edicts of Emperor Ashoka as Keralaputra (the Cheras), Choda (the Cholas), Pandya, Satyaputra (the Adiyamans), and Tambapanni (Porunai). The interpretation of the term Tambapanni and its relationship to the Pandya kingdom and Sri Lanka has contributed to longstanding debates regarding the geographical extent of Ancient Tamilakam.

To clarify these historical issues, it is first necessary to examine several fundamental aspects of the political and social organization of early Tamil society.

The Political Structure of Ancient Tamilakam

According to the author, Ancient Tamilakam was characterized by a system of urban-centred polities (city-states). Numerous rulers belonging to the same royal lineage governed different cities and their surrounding territories. Above these rulers stood a single paramount king (vēndan), who exercised supreme authority.

Unlike many hereditary monarchies, succession in Tamilakam did not automatically pass from a king to his eldest son. Instead, when princes or younger brothers reached maturity, each was entrusted with the administration of a separate city-state. Following the death of the paramount king, the senior-most reigning ruler within the dynasty succeeded to the kingship. In many cases this was the deceased king’s younger brother rather than his son. After him, succession passed to the next senior ruler of the dynasty.

The author argues that this system minimized rivalry within the royal family and helped prevent dynastic conflicts between members of the same lineage.

Representative Institutions and Political Participation

The author further argues that Tamil rulers did not govern as absolute monarchs but were subject to institutional constraints imposed by representatives of the people.

Among these institutions were bodies known as the Aimperumkuzhu (“Council of Five Great Bodies”) and the Enperayam (“Assembly of Eight”). Representatives of towns and village assemblies, together with officials responsible for various administrative functions, were selected through the Kudavolai system of election.

As evidence, the author cites Maruthan Ilanaganar’s poem (Akananuru 77), which is interpreted as demonstrating that local representatives and administrative officials were chosen by popular selection.

According to this interpretation, political authority in Ancient Tamilakam incorporated representative institutions that limited royal power.

Education, Literacy, and Economic Development

The author maintains that literacy and education during the Sangam period were more widespread in Tamilakam than in northern India. Likewise, he argues that Ancient Tamilakam surpassed northern India in technological development, productive capacity, and commercial activity.

Tamil merchants are described as having conducted maritime trade across much of the known world, giving Tamilakam a unique position in ancient international commerce.

This high level of political organization and economic prosperity, the author argues, enabled the Tamil confederacy to defeat the Mauryan Empire during the early third century BCE.

He further observes that, unlike Tamilakam, the kingdom of Magadha did not produce a body of classical literature comparable to the Sangam corpus during the same period.

Materialist Philosophy as the Foundation of Tamil Civilization

A central thesis of the author’s work is that Ancient Tamil intellectual culture rested upon a firmly established tradition of materialist philosophy.

He identifies several philosophical schools that, in his view, formed part of this intellectual tradition:

• Sankhya
• Enniyam
• Lokayata
• Bhutavada
• Vaisheshika
• Ajivika
• Nyaya

According to the author, these philosophical traditions dominated Tamil intellectual life for approximately 1,200 years, from around 1000 BCE until 200 CE.

He argues that this materialist worldview provided the intellectual foundation for remarkable advances in science, technology, and material culture throughout Ancient Tamilakam.

Mozhipeyartheyam: The Deccan as a Buffer Region

The author next discusses the region known in early Tamil literature as Mozhipeyartheyam (“the land of transformed Tamil”).

He argues that the Tamil language gradually evolved into regional dialects, collectively referred to as Koduntamil(“rough” or “modified” Tamil). These dialects were spoken throughout much of the Deccan by approximately the fourth and third centuries BCE, and possibly even earlier.

Drawing upon Mamulanar’s poem (Akananuru 31), the author argues that this region was maintained under the protection of the Three Crowned Tamil Kings.

According to this interpretation, Mozhipeyartheyam functioned as a strategic frontier safeguarding Tamilakam from incursions by northern powers.

The Satavahana Kingdom as a Buffer State

The author further argues that the Satavahana Kingdom emerged in the Deccan with the support of the Tamil rulers.

In Tamil sources, the Satavahanas are referred to as the Nurruvar Kannar (“the Hundred Kings”). Throughout the Sangam period, they maintained friendly relations with Tamilakam and governed in both Tamil and Prakrit.

The author characterizes the Satavahana state as a buffer kingdom, deliberately supported by the Tamil rulers in order to separate Tamilakam from the expanding northern kingdoms.

In this way, he argues, the Tamil kingdoms successfully prevented repeated military incursions from northern India.

The Mauryan Campaigns Against Tamilakam

The author devotes considerable attention to the military campaigns launched by the Mauryan Empire against Tamilakam. Drawing upon historical references contained in the poems of Mamulanar and other Sangam poets, together with evidence from the Pugalur inscription, Ashoka’s edicts, the Sambai inscription, Sangam-age coinage, and archaeological data, he proposes a revised chronology for these events.

According to the author, these diverse sources make it possible to determine:

• the dates of the Mauryan invasions,
• the lifetimes of the Sangam poets,
• the reigns of the Tamil kings,
• and the chronology of the wars between the Mauryan Empire and the Tamil kingdoms.

He argues that by integrating literary evidence with inscriptions, numismatic material, archaeological discoveries, and foreign accounts, it is possible to establish twenty-one chronological phases for early Tamil history. In his view, this interdisciplinary approach provides a more coherent historical framework than traditional chronologies.

Social Classes in Ancient Tamil Society

Another major theme concerns the social organization of Sangam-period Tamil society.

The author distinguishes between social classes and the later institution of caste, arguing that the Sangam period was characterized by the former rather than the latter.

He first differentiates between the Anthanar and the Brahmins (Parppanar), maintaining that these were not originally identical groups. According to the author, the Anthanar were learned scholars and sages rather than hereditary Brahmins.

He further argues that Vedic sacrificial rituals (velvi) were absent during the time of the Tolkappiyam. Such rituals, he contends, were introduced only after the fourth century BCE through the influence of Mimamsa philosophy and were adopted by only a limited number of Tamil rulers. They never became widely accepted among the general population.

Instead, he argues that the ancient Tamil concept of velvi originally referred to the traditional practice of honouring local guardian deities and subsequently distributing cattle and gifts to scholars, poets, musicians, and the poor.

The Social Hierarchy

According to the author’s reconstruction, Sangam society consisted of several social classes.

The highest class comprised learned individuals, including:

• Anthanar,
• Arivar (scholars),
• and Tapathar (ascetics).

The second class consisted of the ruling elites:

• kings,
• Velir chieftains,
• and other governing authorities.

The third class included the economically productive groups:

• merchants,
• landowners,
• and agriculturalists.

The fourth class, described collectively as the Keelor (“lower groups”), included:

• warriors,
• Brahmins,
• bards,
• dancers,
• performers,
• small farmers,
• artisans,
• and labourers.

Finally, the author identifies a fifth category consisting of marginalized people who possessed few or no legal rights.

Despite these distinctions, he argues that all four principal social classes had access to education and literacy. Intermarriage between them was permitted, and movement between classes was possible.

For this reason, he concludes that the Sangam social order should not be equated with the rigid caste system that developed in later centuries.

Reconstructing the Chronology of the Sangam Age

The author argues that a proper understanding of the Kalabhra period requires first establishing an accurate chronology for the preceding Sangam age.

He notes that conventional scholarship generally dates:

• the Sangam period to approximately the third century BCE through the third century CE, and
• the reign of the Chera king Senguttuvanto the second century CE.

The author rejects this chronology.

Instead, he argues that Senguttuvan should be dated more than four centuries earlier, placing his reign in the third century BCE.

On this basis, he proposes the following revised chronology:

Period	Proposed Date
Early Sangam Period	750 BCE – 50 BCE
Reigns of the principal Sangam kings	350 BCE – 50 BCE
Post-Sangam (Imperial) Period	50 BCE – 250 CE
Kalabhra Period	250 CE – 575 CE

According to the author, this revised chronology is supported by a comprehensive analysis of:

• Sangam literature,
• inscriptions,
• archaeological discoveries,
• coins,
• and accounts by foreign writers.

He also argues that recent excavations at Keeladi, Sivakalai, Adichanallur, and Kodumanal reinforce these conclusions.

The author states that the full evidence for this revised historical framework is presented in his earlier research monograph, Ancient Tamil Society and History.

The Sangam and Post-Sangam Periods

The author emphasizes that the Post-Sangam period (50 BCE–250 CE) should not be viewed as a separate civilization but rather as a continuation of the Sangam age under imperial political structures.

Because of this continuity, he argues that both the Sangam and Post-Sangam periods must be studied together when examining the origins of the Kalabhra period.

Only by comparing these earlier periods with the evidence relating to the Kalabhra era, he contends, can one understand the profound social, political, and cultural changes that followed the Kalabhra conquest.

Sangam Society – A Leading Civilization of the Ancient World

The author argues that archaeological discoveries demonstrate that Ancient Tamilakam possessed an advanced civilization from a very early period.

According to the author, recent excavations at Sivakalai confirm the existence of an Iron Age civilization in Tamilakam as early as approximately 5000 BCE, and he further claims that the Tamils were among the first peoples in the world to develop an Iron Age culture.

At Adichanallur, the author states that an industrial settlement existed by approximately 1500 BCE. Excavations at this site have revealed a wide range of iron, bronze, and pottery objects demonstrating advanced technological skills and high-quality craftsmanship among the ancient Tamils.

The author argues that Tamil symbols were already functioning as a writing system by approximately 1500 BCE. From around the same period, small urban political centres are said to have existed throughout Tamilakam. After 1000 BCE, these developed into more advanced commercial city-states.

By approximately 800 BCE, the Tamil-Brahmi script (Tamili) had emerged. The author associates this period with the philosopher Tholkappilar, whom he identifies as the founder of the philosophical system known as Enniyam.

According to the author, Enniyam represented an advanced materialist philosophical tradition, and it encouraged the development of numerous works on:

• philosophy,
• science,
• technology,
• mathematics,
• and other fields of knowledge.

Technological and Cultural Development

The author argues that the combination of:

• advanced technological knowledge,
• organized political alliances,
• large-scale production,
• and maritime capability

transformed Ancient Tamilakam into one of the leading societies of the ancient world.

From approximately 750 BCE to 250 CE, a period of nearly one thousand years before the Kalabhra era, Tamil society is described as achieving exceptional development in many fields, including:

• politics,
• economics,
• industry,
• trade,
• literature,
• philosophy,
• science,
• medicine,
• martial arts,
• architecture,
• shipbuilding,
• music,
• dance,
• painting,
• and sculpture.

During this period, the author places the creation of major Tamil works such as:

• the Sangam literature,
• the Tirukkural,
• the Pathinenkilkanakku texts,
• and the epic Silappadikaram.

He argues that these achievements led the Tamil people to develop a strong linguistic and cultural identity, identifying themselves as Tamils from an early period.

Tamil as a Scientific and Administrative Language

The author argues that for more than one thousand years Tamil functioned as:

• a language of philosophy,
• a scientific and technical language,
• an administrative language,
• a commercial language,
• and a language of education.

According to the author, Tamil therefore possessed greater literary richness, scientific vocabulary, and technical terminology than the northern languages of the period, including:

• Pali,
• Prakrit,
• and Sanskrit.

He further argues that widespread literacy existed in Ancient Tamilakam as early as approximately 600 BCE.

The intellectual foundation of this society, he maintains, was based on materialist philosophical traditions such as:

• Enniyam,
• Sirappiyam,
• Alaviyal,
• and Bhutavada.

These traditions encouraged rational inquiry and contributed to scientific and technological advancement.

International Trade and Maritime Power

The author cites numerous foreign sources to demonstrate the importance of Tamilakam’s international commerce.

Among the sources mentioned are:

• the Periplus of the Erythraean Seaby an anonymous Greek-Egyptian author,
• the Muziris–Alexandria trade agreement,
• Pliny’s Natural History,
• Ptolemy’s Geography,
• writings attributed to the Chinese historian Ban Gu,
• and works by modern historians including:
  • Jawaharlal Nehru,
  • S. Sharma,
  • A. Nilakanta Sastri,
  • Srinivasa Iyengar,
  • and D. N. Jha.

The author highlights two particular examples.

First, he states that the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (approximately 75 CE) indicates that ships travelling from Tamilakam to eastern regions such as China were larger and more numerous than ships arriving from western countries.

Second, he refers to the alleged Muziris–Alexandria agreement of approximately 150 CE, arguing that the value of goods exported by a single Tamil merchant ship to Rome would equal approximately ₹20 billion (2000 crore rupees) in modern terms.

According to the author, hundreds of ships carrying thousands of merchants participated in such trade, with exports to eastern regions being several times greater.

He argues that this enormous commercial activity explains the large number of Roman coins discovered in archaeological excavations throughout Tamil Nadu.

The Great Port Cities of Ancient Tamilakam

The author discusses the ancient Chera port city of Muziris, identified with the archaeological site of Pattanam in Kerala.

He cites the archaeologist Cherian, who has conducted long-term excavations at the site, as stating that scholars familiar with Greek and Latin literature compare ancient Muziris with major modern port cities such as:

• New York,
• London,
• and Shanghai.

According to this interpretation, Muziris was one of the world’s great ports two thousand years ago.

The author argues that other Tamil ports, including:

• Puhar (Kaveripattinam),
• and Korkai,

were even larger than Muziris.

Therefore, he concludes that the ancient cities of Tamilakam ranked among the major urban centres of the ancient world.

Ancient Tamilakam Before the Kalabhra Period

Based on the evidence presented above, the author concludes that until approximately 250 CE, Ancient Tamil society was:

• based on materialist philosophy,
• largely secular in intellectual orientation,
• scientifically advanced,
• technologically sophisticated,
• economically prosperous,
• internationally connected through maritime trade,
• and home to major cities and large ships.

The author describes Ancient Tamilakam as one of the world’s leading civilizations, possessing:

• advanced technology,
• large-scale production,
• extensive wealth,
• developed urban centres,
• and a rich intellectual tradition.

This highly developed society, he argues, existed before the political and social transformation associated with the Kalabhra period.

The Decline of Ancient Tamilakam

The author argues that Tamil society reached its highest level of development during the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. However, he maintains that during the later phase of the Post-Sangam period (50 BCE–250 CE), Tamil society had already begun to weaken because it had developed characteristics typical of an imperial system.

According to the author, at the end of this period Tamilakam still possessed:

• production,
• wealth,
• resources,
• and economic strength.

However, he argues that society had lost:

• intellectual renewal,
• independent thinking,
• a sense of unity,
• and the ability to adapt to changing circumstances.

It was in this environment, he states, that ethical works such as the Tirukkural and other works of the Pathinenkilkanakku collection were created in order to guide society morally.

The author argues that these texts attempted to preserve social values during a period of decline.

The Collapse of Roman Trade and Economic Crisis

The author connects the decline of Tamilakam partly with the crisis of the Roman Empire.

He states that between approximately 235 CE and 284 CE, the Roman Empire experienced a severe political crisis. As a result, trade between Rome and Tamilakam declined and eventually stopped.

According to the author, Tamilakam lost a major source of commercial income after approximately 235 CE, creating an economic crisis.

It was during this period of economic weakness, he argues, that the Kalabhra invasion occurred around 250 CE.

The Kalabhras – An External Invasion

The author argues that from the Sangam period onward, Tamil people regarded populations living in the northern forests as less developed compared with Tamil urban society.

He refers to literary sources that describe people from the Karnataka region as “Kodum Karunadar” (“fierce Karunadar”).

The author cites several later sources:

• the Velvikkudi copper plates,
• the Periyapuranam,
• the Kalladam,
• and the grammatical work Yapparungalakkarigai.

According to his interpretation, these sources indicate that the Kalabhras came from Karnataka, invaded Tamilakam around 250 CE, captured Madurai, weakened Pandyan authority, and placed the three traditional Tamil dynasties under their control.

He further argues that the Talavaypuram copper plates record the later recovery of Tamil territory by the Pandyan king Kadungon around 575 CE.

Thus, according to the author, the Kalabhra period lasted roughly from:

250 CE to 575 CE

The Absence of Earlier References to the Kalabhras

The author emphasizes that the name Kalabhra does not appear in:

• Sangam literature,
• the Pathinenkilkanakku texts,
• or earlier historical records.

He notes that Sangam literature mentions other northern groups, such as:

• Mazhavar,
• Eyinar,
• Vadugar,

but does not mention the Kalabhras.

He also states that after the decline of the Satavahana Empire around 225 CE, several smaller political powers appeared in the Deccan region, including:

• the Abhiras,
• the Chutus,
• the Ikshvakus,
• and the Pallavas.

However, he argues that the Kalabhras are absent from these records as well.

From this, the author concludes that before their invasion the Kalabhras did not possess a recognized state or established agricultural kingdom.

The Kalabhras and the Karnataka Region

The author discusses the possibility that the Kalabhras originated from the region around Shravanabelagola in present-day Karnataka, which was historically associated with the name Kalappu.

He connects this area with references in Tamil literature:

• the Sangam texts referring to the region as Erumainadu,
• and the Silappadikaramdescribing people from Karnataka as Karunadar.

Based on these interpretations, the author argues that the Kalabhras were groups living in the forests of the Deccan region, outside the urban civilization of ancient Tamilakam.

The Kalabhra Invasion and Destruction

The author compares the Kalabhra invasion with other historical examples where less developed societies attacked established civilizations.

He compares it with:

• Germanic attacks against the Roman world,
• the Dorian invasion of Mycenaean Greece,
• and Indo-Aryan migrations into the Indus Valley region.

He argues that societies often build defensive systems to protect themselves from such invasions.

According to the author, ancient Tamils maintained control over the Deccan region, known as Mozhipeyar Theyam (“the land where the language changed”), as a protective buffer zone against northern invasions.

However, he claims that the Kalabhras, together with other similar groups, organized a large military force and invaded Tamilakam around 250 CE.

According to his interpretation, they:

• defeated the three Tamil dynasties,
• destroyed ancient Tamil cities,
• burned urban centres,
• and caused a major social collapse.

The Social Consequences of the Invasion

The author argues that because the Kalabhras were an outside and less urbanized population, their conquest resulted in widespread violence and destruction.

He compares the consequences with the destruction caused by the Dorian invasion of Mycenaean Greece.

He quotes historians who describe the aftermath of the Dorian conquest as a period when:

• cities were destroyed,
• literacy declined,
• crafts weakened,
• villages became isolated,
• poverty increased,
• and society entered a period of decline.

The author argues that a similar transformation occurred in Tamil society after the Kalabhra invasion.

According to him, Tamilakam changed from:

an urban, scientific, economically advanced civilization

into: a rural society with reduced literacy, weaker institutions, and stronger religious influence.

The Consequences of Kalabhra Rule

The author argues that after the Kalabhra conquest, the highly developed social, economic, and intellectual structures of Ancient Tamilakam were severely damaged.

According to him, the Kalabhras captured a wealthy and urbanized Tamil country within a short period and destroyed many of its cities.

He compares this destruction with the actions of conquerors such as Genghis Khan, arguing that the Kalabhras used overwhelming military force, extreme violence, and hostility toward urban civilization.

The author claims that this explains how the Kalabhras were able to:

• defeat the three traditional Tamil dynasties,
• establish control over Tamilakam,
• and rule for approximately 300 years.

He argues that such long-term control could only have been achieved through severe violence, destruction, and the creation of deep fear among the population.

The Transformation of Tamil Philosophy and Society

The author argues that the Kalabhra period caused the destruction of the materialist philosophical traditions that had previously shaped Tamil society.

He claims that earlier Tamil intellectual traditions based on ideas such as:

• rational inquiry,
• materialism,
• scientific thinking,
• and natural philosophy

were weakened or eliminated.

In their place, religious and spiritual ideas became dominant.

According to the author, the reasons for this transformation were the difficult social conditions during the Kalabhra period, including:

• famine,
• hunger,
• poverty,
• unemployment,
• violence,
• lack of education,
• and oppressive government.

He argues that such conditions naturally encourage people to seek comfort and security through religious beliefs.

Therefore, he states that during the Kalabhra period:

• Jainism,
• Buddhism,
• and Brahmanical traditions

all received support.

He specifically mentions that Brahmins were granted Brahmadeya lands (tax-free land grants).

Growth of Religious Literature

The author argues that religious thought gradually became stronger, especially during the 5th and 6th centuries CE.

During this period, he places the emergence of works such as:

• Thirumandiramby Thirumoolar,
• devotional hymns of Karaikkal Ammaiyar.

He also discusses Buddhist scholars from Tamil regions, including:

• Dignaga,
• Dharmakirti,
• Dinnagar,
• Dharmapala,

According to the author, these scholars wrote their works mainly in Sanskrit, rather than Tamil.

He also refers to the establishment of the Dravida Sangha at Madurai in approximately 470 CE by Vajranandi, which was founded to promote Jain traditions.

From this, the author concludes that the Kalabhra period was characterized by the dominance of religious thought.

The Tamil Language During the Kalabhra Period

The author argues that the Kalabhras supported the languages:

• Pali,
• and Prakrit.

According to him, many works were produced in these languages during this period.

He mentions the Tamil Buddhist scholar Buddhadatta Mahathera, who lived in the Chola region and composed several works in Pali, including:

• Buddhavamsa Commentary,
• Abhidhammavatara,
• Uttaravinicchaya.

He states that during the reign of the Kalabhra ruler Achuta Vikkantha, Buddhadatta wrote the work:

• Vinaya Vinicchaya.

The author also mentions Dhammapala of Thanjavur, another Tamil Buddhist scholar who wrote commentaries in Pali.

Therefore, he argues that in the early Kalabhra period, Pali and Prakrit gained influence.

However, he claims that later Sanskrit became dominant, leading to a process of Sanskritization.

The Decline of Tamil as a Scientific Language

The author argues that before the Kalabhra and Pallava periods, Tamil functioned as the language of:

• arts,
• sciences,
• technology,
• philosophy,
• and education.

He claims that many important works from different fields were transferred into Sanskrit during the Kalabhra–Pallava period.

He lists examples such as:

• the Natya Shastra(dance and performance theory),
• Charaka Samhita(medicine),
• architectural texts such as Mayamataand Manasara,
• astronomical and mathematical works such as Aryabhatiya.

According to the author, these works were originally connected to Tamil knowledge traditions and were later translated or absorbed into Sanskrit.

He argues that Sanskrit became a major scientific language by adopting this knowledge, while Tamil lost its status as:

• a scientific language,
• a commercial language,
• and a language of higher learning.

The author concludes that Tamil scholars increasingly began writing first in Pali and Prakrit, and later in Sanskrit, because of the political and cultural conditions created during Kalabhra rule.

Social Change After the Kalabhra Period

The author refers to the English-language book History of Kerala, arguing that archaeological evidence shows a major decline and social transformation during the two centuries following the Kalabhra invasion.

According to him:

• there was a major break in historical continuity,
• development slowed,
• and society underwent fundamental change.

The author argues that many Tamil scholars migrated to Kanchipuram, which was controlled by the Pallavas, carrying Tamil intellectual traditions with them.

As a result, he claims that Kanchipuram became a major centre of:

• philosophy,
• science,
• and arts

for the next six centuries.

However, he argues that the much larger cities of ancient Tamilakam disappeared.

He sees this as evidence of the enormous social changes caused by the Kalabhra conquest.

The Shift from Rational Society to Religious Society

The author argues that because of:

• poverty,
• famine,
• violence,
• decline in literacy,
• and social instability,

Tamil society changed from a society based on rational and materialist philosophy into a society dominated by religion.

He states that Tamil scholars and religious intellectuals increasingly wrote in languages supported by political authorities:

• first Pali and Prakrit,
• later Sanskrit.

The author contrasts this with civilizations such as:

• Greece,
• Persia,
• China,
• and Rome,

where local languages continued to be used even after foreign conquest.

He argues that Tamil society was unique because intellectual production shifted away from Tamil itself.

The Long-Term Effects of the Kalabhra Conquest

The author argues that the Kalabhra invasion caused a transformation of Tamil society that affected more than one thousand years of cultural development.

According to him, ancient traditions, including:

• philosophical ideas,
• arts,
• literature,
• cultural practices,
• economic structures,
• technology,
• systems of production,
• and social values from the Sangam period

were either destroyed or fundamentally changed.

He argues that institutions responsible for preserving and developing:

• philosophy,
• science,
• technology,
• and the arts

collapsed during this period.

As a result, the author states that Ancient Tamil society experienced a historical disaster from which it never fully recovered.

The Transformation of Ancient Tamil Society

The author contrasts the society before and after the Kalabhra period.

Before the Kalabhra conquest, he describes Tamilakam as a society with:

• large cities,
• advanced industries,
• international trade,
• maritime power,
• scientific knowledge,
• literature,
• philosophy,
• and technological achievements.

He mentions intellectual figures such as:

• Tholkappilar,
• Kanadar (Kanadha),
• Tholkappiyar,
• and Valluvar.

According to the author, this highly developed society disappeared and was replaced by:

• a rural society,
• a more religiously oriented society,
• and a society with less scientific and philosophical activity.

He argues that this transformation explains several historical changes, including:

• the decline of older Tamil intellectual traditions,
• the religious character of later literature,
• and the cultural separation of regions such as Chera Nadu, which later became Kerala.

The Effect of Kalabhra Rule on the Sengam–Dharmapuri Region

The author presents the Sengam–Dharmapuri region as an example of the social changes caused by the Kalabhra period.

He refers to archaeological research by Dr. Poongundran, who studied approximately 200 hero stones (nadukal) from fourteen old administrative regions, including:

• Sengam,
• Polur,
• Tiruvannamalai,
• Tiruppattur,
• Vaniyambadi,
• Dharmapuri,
• Harur,
• Uthangarai,
• Krishnagiri,
• Palacode,
• Villupuram,
• Sankarapuram,
• Kallakurichi,
• and Tindivanam.

According to the author, this research concluded that the population of this region remained in a tribal-style pastoral society from the Sangam period until approximately the 10th century CE.

The author argues that the region had mainly:

• village-level political organization,
• cattle-based pastoral life,
• and limited urban development.

He states that major change occurred only after the rise of the Chola state.

However, he criticizes the study because, according to him, it does not sufficiently discuss the Kalabhra period between:

250 CE and 550 CE.

The Earlier Prosperity of the Dharmapuri Region

The author argues that the same region had actually been highly developed before the Kalabhra invasion.

He refers to the ancient ruler Adiyaman, whose kingdom was centred around Tagadur (modern Dharmapuri).

According to the author:

• Adiyaman was mentioned in Ashokan inscriptions alongside major Tamil rulers.
• His kingdom was famous for iron and steel production.
• Coins and a ring associated with Adiyaman have been discovered.

He also refers to excavations at Krishnagiri, which he says demonstrate the presence of Iron Age culture around 2200 BCE.

The region, according to the author, had several important industries:

• cattle breeding,
• dry farming,
• iron and steel production,
• bead production,
• textile manufacturing.

It was also connected by major trade routes.

The Kalabhra Period as the Cause of Decline

The author argues that the region experienced significant development from:

• the 3rd century BCE,
• through the Sangam period,
• and until approximately 250 CE.

Therefore, he concludes that the later backwardness of the region was not a continuation of ancient conditions but the result of destruction caused by the Kalabhra invasion and their rule.

He presents the Sengam–Dharmapuri region as an example of the broader transformation that he believes occurred throughout Tamilakam.

The Pathinenkilkanakku Literature

The author next discusses the Pathinenkilkanakku (“Eighteen Lesser Texts”).

These consist of:

• six works on love and personal life (akam literature),
• one work on external themes (puram literature),
• two ethical works,
• and nine works on moral instruction.

Together, these works contain approximately:

3,255 poems.

Traditional Tamil literary history places these works after the Sangam period but connected to Sangam ideas.

The author argues that these texts include:

• ethical thought,
• rational arguments,
• social ideas,
• the five landscape classifications (Ainthinai),
• and the concepts of aram (virtue), porul (wealth/social order), and inbam (love/pleasure).

Because these ideas continue Sangam traditions, he argues that the Pathinenkilkanakku works belong to the Post-Sangam period (50 BCE–250 CE) rather than the Kalabhra period.

Dating the Tirukkural and Other Works

The author argues that many scholars incorrectly place the Pathinenkilkanakku works in the Kalabhra period because they misunderstand the chronology of:

• the Sangam period,
• the Post-Sangam period,
• and the Kalabhra period.

According to his chronology:

• Sangam period: 750 BCE – 50 BCE
• Post-Sangam period: 50 BCE – 250 CE
• Kalabhra period: 250 CE – 575 CE

He argues that the Tirukkural, Silappadikaram, and other Pathinenkilkanakku works were created during the Post-Sangam period, before the Kalabhra conquest.

Why the Pathinenkilkanakku Works Cannot Belong to the Kalabhra Period

The author argues that the Pathinenkilkanakku texts could not have been produced during the Kalabhra period because their ideas and style belong to an earlier intellectual tradition.

According to the author, the Kalabhra period was characterized by:

• the decline of materialist philosophy,
• the growth of religious influence,
• and the increasing importance of concepts such as spiritual liberation (veedu).

However, the Pathinenkilkanakku works focus mainly on:

• virtue (aram),
• social order and prosperity (porul),
• human relationships and pleasure (inbam).

The author argues that these works do not emphasize religious salvation and therefore reflect the earlier Sangam intellectual tradition.

The Tirukkural and the Earlier Tamil Tradition

The author argues that the Tirukkural must have been composed before the Kalabhra period.

His reasoning is based on literary chronology.

He states that:

• Silappadikarambelongs to approximately the 2nd century CE.
• Therefore, the Tirukkural, which influenced later works, must have existed earlier.
• He places the Tirukkural around the 1st century BCE or early centuries CE.

He also argues that:

• Naladiyar, influenced by the Tirukkural tradition, belongs to the same general period.
• Kalavazhi Narpathu, a work based on ancient Puram traditions,
• and several Akam works such as Kar Narpathu

were composed before Silappadikaram.

Therefore, according to the author, many Pathinenkilkanakku texts were created before 250 CE.

The Intellectual Environment of the Kalabhra Period

The author argues that during the Kalabhra period Tamil intellectuals increasingly wrote in:

• Pali,
• Prakrit,
• and later Sanskrit.

Because of this, he argues, it would not have been possible for a large number of secular Tamil ethical works such as the Pathinenkilkanakku texts to emerge during this period.

He states that the religious work Thirumandiram belongs to the later period when religious thought had become dominant.

Therefore, he concludes that secular works such as the Tirukkural and the Pathinenkilkanakku texts must belong to the earlier Post-Sangam period.

A New Historical Chronology of Ancient Tamilakam

The author argues that confusion about Tamil history has resulted from incorrect dating of the Sangam period.

According to the traditional interpretation, the Sangam period continued until approximately the 3rd century CE.

The author rejects this and proposes a different chronology:

Sangam Period

750 BCE – 50 BCE

A period of:

• city-states,
• Tamil kings,
• early urban development,
• and classical literature.

Post-Sangam Period

50 BCE – 250 CE

A period of:

• larger kingdoms and imperial structures,
• continuation of Sangam traditions,
• creation of works such as:
  • Tirukkural,
  • Pathinenkilkanakku,

Kalabhra Period

250 CE – 575 CE

A period of:

• political disruption,
• social transformation,
• religious dominance,
• and decline of earlier Tamil institutions.

The author states that this chronology is based on combining evidence from:

• Sangam literature,
• inscriptions,
• archaeological excavations,
• coins,
• and foreign historical records.

Overall Conclusion of the Author

The author concludes that Ancient Tamilakam before the Kalabhra period was one of the most advanced societies of the ancient world.

He describes it as a civilization with:

• highly developed cities,
• international maritime trade,
• advanced industries,
• scientific knowledge,
• philosophical traditions,
• literature,
• and widespread literacy.

According to the author, the Kalabhra invasion around 250 CE created a major historical rupture.

He argues that the consequences included:

• destruction of urban centres,
• decline of Tamil scientific traditions,
• weakening of older philosophical systems,
• increased religious influence,
• loss of Tamil as a scientific and administrative language,
• and a transition from an urban civilization to a more rural and religious society.

The author presents the Kalabhra period as the main reason for the disappearance of many ancient Tamil traditions and for the large difference between:

• the secular, scientific, and philosophical character of earlier Sangam literature,

and

• the strongly religious character of much later Tamil literature.

Final Summary

The central argument of the text is:

Ancient Tamilakam reached a high level of development before 250 CE, with advanced urban life, international trade, science, philosophy, and literature. The Kalabhra invasion and subsequent rule caused a major social and cultural transformation. According to the author, this led to the decline of earlier Tamil intellectual traditions and the rise of a more religiously oriented society. The author argues that works such as the Tirukkural and Pathinenkilkanakku belong not to the Kalabhra period, but to the earlier Post-Sangam era.

Translation by Hari

---